Open Source Biotechnology ProjectHomeTheoretical Perspectives* Introduction* Sociology of Science * Economics * Law Biotechnology Industry* Introduction* Industry Overview * Intellectual Property and Industry Structure Open Source* Introduction* What is Open Source? * Open Source as a Business Approach * Open Source Biotechnology? Project Design* Research Plan* Ethics * Researcher Profile and Contact Information LinksRevision historyCopyright (c) 2003 Janet Hope, Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200. Verbatim copying and distribution of this site is permitted in any medium, provided this notice is preserved. |
Biotechnology industry overviewIntroductionSome important biotechnologies Biotechnology research tools Other applications of biotechnology industry products IntroductionThe first genetically engineered organisms were created in the United States in 1973 by academic scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen. [1] Five years later, Genentech -- the company founded by Boyer and venture capitalist Robert Swanson to commercialise the new technology -- announced the synthesis of human insulin in bacterial cells. [2] This remarkable early success captured the imagination of investors, and when Genentech went public in 1980, its stock underwent the most dramatic escalation in value in Wall Street history. [3] By the end of 1981, over 80 new biotechnology firms had been established in the US. [4] [BIO Report 2002-3 provides a timeline of industry development.]Two decades on, biotechnology forms the basis of a multibillion-dollar global industry. [5] As of 2002, there were 1457 biotechnology companies in the US, of which 342 were publicly held. Market capitalisation, the total value of publicly traded biotech companies at market prices, was $US 224 billion as of early May 2002. The biotechnology industry has more than tripled in size since 1992, with revenues increasing from $US 8 billion to $27.6 billion in 2001. Biotechnology is one of the most research intensive industries in the world; the US biotech industry spent 15.6 billion on research and development in 2001. The highest geographical concentration of private and public biotech companies is in New England and San Francisco Bay Area. [Source of statistics: BIO Report, 2002-3, p3-4] A pie chart of biotech industry financing sources in 2001 on p7 of the Biotechnology Industry Organisation Report for 2002-3 shows nearly 50% from public/"other". The following overview of widely used biotechnologies and their applications summarises the material in that report. Notes[1][Cohen, November 1973 #354], [Morrow, May 1974 #356],[Chang, April 1974 #355] [2][Genentech company website, http://www.gene.com/gene/about_genentech/history/#1976, last visited 4 March 2002] [3][UC Berkeley Library, Biotech At 25: The Founders, http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/Exhibits/Biotech/25.html, last visited 4 March 2002 ] [4][page 5, [INTECH (Institute for New Technologies), 1991 #357]] [5][For an overview of the modern biotechnology industry, see generally [Ernst&Young, 2000 #335]] [Ernst&Young, 2000 #335]] References: Biotechnology Industry Organization Editors' and Reporters' Guide to Biotechnology 2002-2003. Washington DC: Biotechnology Industry Organization. Some important biotechnologiesMonoclonal antibodies are immune system cells that make proteins called antibodies. They are used as detection devices (their specificity makes them powerful diagnostic tools, because they are able to locate substances in miniscule amounts and measure them with great accuracy) and as highly specific therapeutic compounds: e.g. delivering toxins to a cancer cell while avoiding healthy cells. Cell culture is the growing of cells outside living organisms. Plant cell culture is used in creating transgenic crops, obtaining naturally occurring products with therapeutic value, and as a source of compounds used as flavours etc by food processing industry. Insect cell culture is used in making biological control agents. Mammalian cell culture is used in livestock breeding, the manufacture of human therapeutic proteins, and stem cell technology. Cloning allows the generation of a population of genetically identical molecules, cells, plants or animals. Molecular cloning (as distinct from cellular cloning and animal cloning) is the foundation of the molecular biology revolution and is a fundamental and essential tool of biotechnology research, development and commercialisation. Recombinant DNA [...go back to report] Protein engineering is used in conjunction with recombinant DNA techniques to alter existing proteins such as enzymes antibodies and cell receptors and to create proteins not found in nature to be used in drug development, food processing and industrial manufacturing. Biosensors are composed of a biological component such as a cell or antibody linked to a tiny transducer. They are detecting devices that rely on the specificity of cells and molecules to identify and measure substances at low concentrations; when the substance collides with the biological component, the transducer produces a digital electronic signal proportional to its concentration. Tissue engineering technology combines advances in cell biology and materials science to create semisynthetic tissues and organs in the laboratory. Nanobiotechnology joins molecular biology breakthroughs to the study, manipulation and manufacture of ultrasmall structures and machines made of as few as one molecule -- e.g. biochips use DNA storage capacity to do maths. Microarray technology combines progress in the semiconductor manufacturing industry with molecular genetics. The technology transforms genetic analysis by allowing analysis of tens of thousands of genes or proteins simultaneously on a single chip; automated microarray manufacturing uses a series of masks to lay down an array of DNA or proteins on a glass slide to produce DNA chips and protein chips. Biotechnology research toolsIn addition to other applications (some of which are noted below), specific biotechnologies are used as tools in research and development; these are the biotechnologies that are the primary focus of the present study. Biotech tools used in R&D applications include: Molecular cloning (see above). Genomics. Genomics is the scientific study of the genome and the role genes play, individually and collectively, in determining structure, directing growth and development and controlling biological functions. Genomics has two branches known as structural and functional genomics. Structural genomics focuses on the physical aspects of the genome and includes construction of maps and large-scale sequencing, e.g. human genome project and the planned genome research program. Functional genomics translates sequence data into biological functions. Proteomics. The set of all proteins expressed in a cell (ie its protein complement) is its proteome. Proteomics is the study of structure, function, location and interaction of proteins within and between cells. Gene knockouts and antisense technologies. Knockouts involve targeted mutations to disrupt gene function; antisense technology involves the selective blocking of genes using small pieces of DNA or RNA to prevent expression. Cell culture technologies are aimed at developing a detailed understanding of basic cell function and the conditions for keeping culture cells healthy. This field includes fundamental research attempting to understand the cell cycle and programmed cell death (apoptosis). Stem cell technology is aimed at understanding what controls the development of a single cell into a multicellular organism. This field covers adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells, somatic cell nuclear replacement and stem cell culture. [?] Animal cloning. [...go back to report] Bioinformatics. Data collected on one species is useful to scientists studying other species, but the information must be organised. Bioinformatics technology uses computational tools such as statistical software, graphics stimulation and database management to organise, access, process and integrate data from different sources. This uniformity in conjunction with the universal language of life at the molecular level enables international collaboration among scientists studying plants, animal or microbes. "Bioinformatics" also covers biosimulations generated by computers, as the term "in silico" is added to "in vivo" and "in vitro" to describe experimental conditions. Other applications of biotechnology industry productsHealth care applications include diagnostics, therapeutics, regenerative medicine, vaccines, genomics/proteomics, and approved biotech drugs. Agricultural production applications include:
Food applications: [...go back to report] Industrial and environmental applications include industrial manufacturing enzymes, nanotech, and environmental monitoring. Defence and national security applications include the manufacture of vaccines, mAbs, DNA/RNA therapeutics, etc. Other uses include DNA fingerprinting, space research, animal health, and endangered species conservation. [Note to myself: the BIO Report includes further information that will be useful to me:
References: Biotechnology Industry Organization Editors' and Reporters' Guide to Biotechnology 2002-2003. Washington DC: Biotechnology Industry Organization. |